CSEET · Business Communication

Essentials of Good English: formula sheet

Full chapter guide

Key formulas

Noun test: Noun = name of a person, place, thing or idea; Types: common, proper, collective, abstract, material. Proper nouns start with a capital letter.
Pronoun test: Pronoun = word used in place of a noun; Types include personal (I, he), reflexive (himself), relative (who, which), demonstrative (this) and interrogative (what).
Verb test: Verb = word that shows action, state or being; Every complete sentence needs a verb. Helping verbs (is, has, will) support the main verb.
Adjective test: Adjective answers: which? what kind? how many?; It modifies only a noun or pronoun.
Adverb test: Adverb answers: how? when? where? how much?; It modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Many end in -ly, but not all do (fast, very, never).
Preposition test: Preposition + noun/pronoun = phrase; A pronoun after a preposition takes the object form: between you and me, not between you and I.
Conjunction test: Conjunction = joining word; Coordinating: and, but, or. Subordinating: because, although, if, when.
Interjection test: Interjection = word of sudden emotion, often followed by !; It has no grammatical link to the rest of the sentence.
Simple present: Subject + V1 (add s/es for he, she, it, singular noun); Habits and general facts: The Board meets every quarter.
Present continuous: Subject + am/is/are + V-ing; Action in progress now or planned: The auditors are reviewing the accounts.
Present perfect: Subject + has/have + V3; Completed action with present relevance, no finished time stated: I have sent the letter.
Present perfect continuous: Subject + has/have been + V-ing; Action started earlier and continuing, often with since or for.
Simple past: Subject + V2; Finished action at a finished time: He resigned last month.
Past continuous: Subject + was/were + V-ing; Action in progress at a past moment: We were drafting the minutes at noon.
Past perfect: Subject + had + V3; The earlier of two past actions: The meeting had begun when I arrived.
Past perfect continuous: Subject + had been + V-ing; Action continuing up to a past point.
Simple future: Subject + will/shall + V1; Future fact or decision: The report will be ready tomorrow.
Future continuous: Subject + will be + V-ing; Action in progress at a future time.
Future perfect: Subject + will have + V3; Action completed before a future time: She will have finished by 5 pm.
Future perfect continuous: Subject + will have been + V-ing; Action continuing up to a future point, usually with a duration.
Since and for: since + point in time; for + period of time; Used with perfect tenses: since 2020, for five years.
Basic agreement: Singular subject → singular verb; plural subject → plural verb; Ignore words between subject and verb: The list of items is long.
Subjects joined by and: A and B → plural verb; Exception: when both name one person or thing, use singular: Bread and butter is my breakfast.
Either/or, neither/nor: Verb agrees with the subject nearer to it; Neither the manager nor the clerks were present.
Each, every, either, neither, one, anyone, everyone: Take a singular verb; Each of the members has a vote.
Collective nouns: Singular when the group acts as one; plural when members act separately; The committee has decided. The committee are divided in their views.
Plural in form, singular in meaning: News, mathematics, physics, economics → singular verb; Economics is a social science.
Fixed plurals: Scissors, trousers, spectacles, police, cattle → plural verb; The police are investigating.
A or an: a + consonant sound; an + vowel sound; Go by pronunciation: an MBA, an honest man, a one-rupee coin, a European tour.
Use of the: the + specific or already mentioned noun; the + unique things; the + superlatives; Examples: the sun, the best plan, the Reserve Bank of India. Also used with rivers, oceans, mountain ranges and holy books.
No article: No article before plural or uncountable nouns used in a general sense, and before most names of persons, cities and countries; Say "Honesty is the best policy" and "Mumbai is large". Do not add the without a reason.
Time prepositions: at + clock time; on + day or date; in + month, year, season; at 5 pm, on Monday, in March, in 2025.
Place prepositions: at + point; in + enclosed area or city; on + surface; at the gate, in Pune, on the table.
Since and for: since + point of time; for + period of time; since 2020, for five years. Both usually go with the perfect tense.
Between and among: between + two; among + more than two; Between the two partners; among the directors.
Fixed pairs: depend on; agree to a proposal, agree with a person; good at; interested in; prohibit from; comply with; Learn these as units. Also: different from, capable of, aware of, congratulate on.
Phrase: Phrase = group of words without a subject + finite verb; It works as a noun, adjective or adverb but cannot stand alone.
Clause: Clause = subject + finite verb (+ rest of the sentence); Main clause makes sense alone; subordinate clause does not.
Simple sentence: 1 main clause, 0 subordinate clauses; It can still have a long phrase or a compound subject or verb.
Compound sentence: Main clause + coordinating conjunction + main clause; Both parts could stand alone as sentences.
Complex sentence: Main clause + subordinate clause (via a subordinating word); The subordinate clause may come first or last.
Four functional types: Declarative (.) | Interrogative (?) | Imperative (. or !) | Exclamatory (!); Identify by purpose, not only by punctuation.
Tense shift in indirect speech: Present simple → Past simple; Present continuous → Past continuous; Present perfect → Past perfect; Past simple → Past perfect; will → would; can → could; may → might; Apply only when the reporting verb is in the past (said, told). If it is present or future, or the statement is a universal truth, the tense usually stays the same.
Pronoun change: First person → matches the subject of the reporting verb; Second person → matches the object of the reporting verb; Third person → no change; Short rule: I-me-my follow the speaker, you follows the listener, he-she-they stay.
Time and place words: now → then; today → that day; tomorrow → the next day; yesterday → the previous day; ago → before; this → that; here → there; thus → so; Change them when the reporting verb is in the past and the time or place differs from the speaker's.
Statements: said that + reported clause (said to → told); Use told when a listener is named: She told me that...
Questions: asked + if/whether (yes-no question) or asked + wh-word (wh-question), then normal word order; No question mark in indirect speech. Do not use auxiliary-before-subject order.
Commands and requests: ordered/told/requested/advised + object + to + verb; negative: told + object + not to + verb; Choose the reporting verb by the tone: order, request, advise, beg.
Exclamations and wishes: exclaimed with joy/sorrow/surprise that...; wished/prayed that...; Drop the exclamation mark and words like "Alas" or "Hurrah" and show the feeling in the verb.
Passive voice structure: Object of active → Subject of passive + be (in same tense) + past participle + by + doer; Example: Simple present: is/are + V3; simple past: was/were + V3; present perfect: has/have been + V3; future: will be + V3.
Passive of continuous tenses: Present continuous: is/are being + V3; Past continuous: was/were being + V3; Perfect continuous tenses are rarely made passive.
Passive with modals: modal + be + V3; Example: You must submit the form → The form must be submitted.
Tone check: Positive word ↔ positive synonym; negative word ↔ negative synonym; Pick the option that matches both meaning and feeling. 'Frugal' (positive) suits 'economical', not 'miserly'.
Antonym check: Antonym = opposite meaning, not just a different word; Opposite of 'generous' is 'stingy', not 'rich'. Watch for options that are related but not opposite.
Common one-word substitutions: Polyglot = knows many languages; Somnambulist = walks in sleep; Misanthrope = hates mankind; Philanthropist = loves mankind and helps others; Egoist = thinks only of self; Bibliophile = lover of books; Amateur = does something for pleasure, not pay; Nepotism = favouring relatives; Learn each as a pair: phrase to word and word to phrase.
Common idioms: Break the ice = start a conversation; Hit the nail on the head = say exactly the right thing; A blessing in disguise = a good thing that seemed bad at first; Burn the midnight oil = study or work late; Cut corners = do something cheaply or carelessly; Once in a blue moon = very rarely; Never translate idioms word for word.
Confused word pairs: affect (verb) / effect (noun); principal / principle; stationary / stationery; complement / compliment; accept / except; council / counsel; elicit / illicit; personal / personnel; Complement = completes; compliment = praise. Accept = receive; except = leaving out. Council = a body; counsel = advice. Elicit = draw out; illicit = illegal. Personnel = staff.
The 7 Cs of effective communication: Clarity, Conciseness, Correctness, Completeness, Courtesy, Concreteness, Consideration; Use as a checklist for any piece of writing. Some books list them slightly differently, so learn the version in your study material.
Full stop (.): Ends a statement or a polite request.; Example: The meeting begins at 10 a.m.
Comma (,): Separates items in a list, joins clauses with a conjunction, and sets off introductory words.; Example: We need pens, files, and folders. However, the order is delayed.
Semicolon (;): Joins two closely related complete sentences.; Example: The report is ready; the board will review it today.
Colon (:): Introduces a list, an explanation or a quotation.; Example: Bring three things: your ID, your hall ticket and a pen.
Apostrophe ('): Shows possession or a contraction. It never makes a plural.; Example: the company's policy; the companies' policies; it's = it is; its = belonging to it.
Question mark and exclamation mark: ? after a direct question; ! after strong feeling.; Do not use ? after an indirect question: She asked where the file was.
Capital letters: Use for the first word of a sentence, proper nouns and the pronoun I.; Example: Infosys is based in Bengaluru.

Quick revision

Noun names, pronoun replaces a noun, verb shows action or state, adjective describes a noun, adverb describes a verb, adjective or adverb.
The verb must agree with its true subject, not the nearest noun.
Singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.
Use the simple present for habits and general truths.
Use the present perfect for past actions with a link to now. Do not add a finished time word.
Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds. Go by sound, not spelling.
Learn fixed preposition pairs, such as interested in, good at and responsible for.
A sentence needs a subject and a finished verb idea. Fragments and run-ons lose marks.
In indirect speech, change pronouns and time words as well as tense.
In passive voice, the object becomes the subject and the verb uses a form of be plus the past participle.
Choose the synonym or antonym that fits the context, not just any similar word.
In comprehension, find the answer in the passage first, then write it in your own words.

Common mistakes

Treating every word ending in -ly as an adverb. Fix: Check what the word describes. 'A friendly manager' has an adjective because friendly describes a noun.
Using an adjective in place of an adverb, as in 'She speaks clear'. Fix: If the word describes a verb, use the adverb: 'She speaks clearly'.
Choosing the verb to match the noun just before it, as in "The list of items are ready." Fix: Find the head noun. Here it is list, so write "The list of items is ready."
Using present perfect with a finished time: "I have met him yesterday." Fix: With yesterday, last week, in 2021 or ago, use simple past: "I met him yesterday."
Choosing a or an by the letter, such as "a hour" or "an university". Fix: Say the word aloud. Write "an hour" and "a university".
Using the before general plural or uncountable nouns, as in "The honesty is a virtue". Fix: Drop the when the noun is general: "Honesty is a virtue".
Calling a sentence compound just because it is long. Fix: Count subject-verb pairs. A long sentence with one pair is still simple.
Treating a phrase with a participle as a clause. Fix: Ask whether the verb has its own subject. "Having signed the deal" has none, so it is a phrase.
Changing the tense when the reporting verb is in the present or future, such as She says, "I am tired." Fix: Look at the reporting verb first. With says, will say or has said, keep the tense: She says that she is tired.
Keeping question word order in indirect speech, such as He asked where was I going. Fix: Use statement order: He asked where I was going. Remove the question mark.

Exam tips

In written answers, give the class and a short reason, such as 'adverb, modifies the verb'. A bare label may earn fewer marks.
Test every word in its own sentence. Examiners often pick words that change class, such as hard, fast and early.
Use the topic in your letters and comprehension. Choose precise adjectives and adverbs and avoid errors like good/well.
Revise pronoun case and preposition use, because these are common error-correction targets.
Practise with short passages: label 10 words a day, and check your reasons.
In written Business Communication papers, rewrite the full corrected sentence, not just the changed word, and add a brief reason if the question asks for one.
Underline the subject and the time clue in the question paper before you write. It takes seconds and prevents most errors.
Learn the clue words for each tense by heart. Examiners often plant words like since, ago, already and by the time to point to one correct tense.