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Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) - Principles and Practice · Environment

Climate Change and Global Frameworks: UNFCCC, Kyoto, Paris and India

Updated 11 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Climate change is a long-term shift in global temperature and weather caused mainly by greenhouse gas emissions from human activity. The global response runs through the UNFCCC (1992), the Kyoto Protocol (binding targets for developed countries) and the Paris Agreement (nationally determined contributions from all). India targets net zero by 2070.

Understand Climate Change and Global Frameworks

Climate change is a long-term change in average temperature and weather patterns. Since the industrial era, burning coal, oil and gas, clearing forests and farming have raised the level of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. These gases trap heat in the atmosphere. This is the greenhouse effect. Extra trapping leads to global warming, which brings heatwaves, floods, droughts, sea-level rise and damage to food and water systems.

No single country can fix this, because emissions anywhere affect the whole planet. So countries built a treaty system. The UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) was adopted in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit and came into force in 1994. It is the parent treaty. It sets the goal of stabilising GHG concentrations at a level that avoids dangerous interference with the climate system. It also rests on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC): all countries must act, but developed countries, who emitted most historically, must lead.

The Kyoto Protocol (adopted 1997, in force 2005) turned the UNFCCC goal into legally binding emission-reduction targets, but only for developed countries (Annex I parties). Developing countries such as India had no binding targets. It also created market tools: emissions trading, joint implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which let projects in developing countries earn credits.

The Paris Agreement (adopted at COP21 in December 2015, in force 2016) applies to all parties. It aims to hold the global average temperature rise well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. Each country sets its own Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), reports progress, and updates its NDC every five years with the aim of increasing ambition. Targets are set by the country, so the pledge is binding in process (reporting and review) rather than in the size of the target. Developed countries are expected to provide climate finance to developing countries.

The COP (Conference of the Parties) is the UNFCCC's yearly decision-making meeting. COP28 (Dubai, 2023) concluded the first Global Stocktake of Paris progress and called for transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems in a just, orderly and equitable manner. It also operationalised the loss and damage fund. India's commitments include net zero by 2070, 500 GW non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030 and cutting emissions intensity of GDP. Check the latest official NDC text for exact figures before the exam.

Key rules to remember

Paris temperature goal
Well below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C (above pre-industrial levels)
Applies to all parties through NDCs, not through a fixed binding target per country.
Treaty sequence
UNFCCC 1992 → Kyoto Protocol 1997 → Paris Agreement 2015
Adoption years. Kyoto came into force in 2005 and Paris in 2016.
Core principle
CBDR-RC = common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities
Basis for treating developed and developing countries differently.
India's long-term target
Net zero emissions by 2070
Announced at COP26, Glasgow, 2021, along with 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030.
NDC cycle
NDC submitted and updated every 5 years
Each update should reflect the highest possible ambition.

How to solve Climate Change and Global Frameworks questions

Use this order for any question on climate change or global frameworks. It keeps your answer structured and covers what an examiner looks for.

  1. 1Read the verb. 'Explain' needs reasons, 'distinguish' needs a comparison, 'discuss' needs both sides, 'examine India's position' needs facts plus evaluation.
  2. 2Name the instrument and its year first (UNFCCC 1992, Kyoto 1997, Paris 2015, or the relevant COP).
  3. 3State the core purpose in one or two lines, such as stabilising GHGs or limiting warming to 1.5°C.
  4. 4Give the key features: who is bound, type of target, review mechanism and finance or market tools.
  5. 5Bring in the CBDR-RC principle where developed and developing countries are compared.
  6. 6Link to India with its NDC, net zero 2070 and 500 GW target, then to the company: BRSR disclosures, emission reduction and governance duty.
  7. 7End with a short conclusion, and for case-based questions apply the facts to the company and state your recommendation.

Quickest way: Three-column comparison grid

When to use it: Use when the question asks you to compare or trace the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement, or when time is short.

  1. Draw three columns: UNFCCC, Kyoto, Paris.
  2. Fill four rows in a line each: year, who is bound, nature of targets, key tools.
  3. UNFCCC: 1992, framework, no binding limits, CBDR-RC. Kyoto: 1997, developed countries only, binding targets, trading and CDM. Paris: 2015, all countries, self-set NDCs, five-year review.
  4. Add one line each on COP28 and India's net zero 2070, then write the answer in full sentences from the grid.

Common mistakes in Climate Change and Global Frameworks

  • Saying the Kyoto Protocol binds all countries.

    Students mix it up with the Paris Agreement, which covers everyone.

    Fix: Remember: Kyoto bound only developed (Annex I) countries; Paris involves all through NDCs.

  • Calling Paris targets legally binding in size.

    The treaty is legally binding, so students assume each NDC target is too.

    Fix: Write that the procedural duties (submit NDCs, report, review) bind parties, while the level of each target is set nationally.

  • Confusing UNFCCC with COP.

    Both appear together in news and notes.

    Fix: UNFCCC is the treaty; COP is its supreme body that meets every year to review and decide.

  • Giving wrong years or mixing adoption and entry into force.

    Each treaty has two dates and they are easy to swap.

    Fix: Learn adoption years 1992, 1997, 2015 first, and add entry into force (1994, 2005, 2016) as extra detail.

  • Stating India's targets from memory with exact numbers that are outdated.

    NDCs are updated and old notes carry older figures.

    Fix: Anchor on net zero 2070 and 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030, and add other figures only if you are sure of them.

  • Writing only theory and skipping the company angle.

    Students treat it as an environment topic, not a governance one.

    Fix: Close each answer with how a company and its Company Secretary respond: disclosure, targets, board oversight.

Worked examples

Example 1

Distinguish between the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

Show the solution
  1. Start with the basis. Kyoto (adopted 1997, in force 2005) is a protocol under the UNFCCC. The Paris Agreement (adopted 2015, in force 2016) is also under the UNFCCC.
  2. Coverage: Kyoto set binding emission targets only for developed countries listed as Annex I. Paris covers all parties, developed and developing.
  3. Target setting: under Kyoto the targets were set through negotiation and imposed on listed countries. Under Paris each country sets its own NDC.
  4. Review: Kyoto worked through commitment periods. Paris requires reporting and a five-year cycle of updated NDCs, supported by a global stocktake.
  5. Tools: Kyoto created emissions trading, joint implementation and the CDM. Paris has a temperature goal and expects finance for developing countries.
  6. Conclude that Kyoto was top-down and limited in coverage, while Paris is universal and bottom-up.

Answer: Kyoto: binding targets for developed countries only, top-down, market mechanisms such as CDM. Paris: all countries, nationally determined contributions, five-year review, goal of well below 2°C and efforts towards 1.5°C.

Example 2

Sundaram Textiles Ltd, an Indian listed company, asks its Company Secretary how India's climate commitments affect the company and what the board should do.

Show the solution
  1. Provision: India is a party to the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement. It has pledged net zero by 2070 and 500 GW non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030 through its NDC.
  2. Analysis: these are national commitments. They are met through domestic law and policy, so the company is affected by energy, emission and disclosure rules, and by buyer and investor expectations.
  3. Link to disclosure: a listed company must report environmental data, including energy use and emissions, in its BRSR, so it needs credible data.
  4. Action: the board should oversee climate risk, measure its GHG emissions, set reduction and renewable energy targets, and review them regularly.
  5. Role of the Company Secretary: ensure board-level oversight, accurate disclosure, policy updates and compliance tracking.

Answer: India's Paris-linked commitments do not bind the company directly, but they shape the laws and market expectations it faces. The board should measure emissions, set targets, oversee climate risk and disclose through BRSR, with the Company Secretary coordinating compliance.

Exam tips

  • Learn the three-treaty timeline cold. Distinction questions are the most common form of this topic.
  • Always add one line on CBDR-RC when comparing developed and developing countries.
  • Use India's net zero 2070 and 500 GW by 2030 in every answer on India, and say 'as per the latest NDC' for other figures.
  • In case-based questions, finish with the Company Secretary's practical action: disclosure, board oversight, compliance.
  • Write short headed points or small tables of contrasts in the answer sheet. They make comparisons easy for the examiner to mark.

Practice questions from Environment

Climate Change and Global Frameworks in other exams

The same ground in other exams, if you are preparing for more than one or want another angle on it.

Climate Change and Global Frameworks: frequently asked questions

What is the difference between UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement?

The UNFCCC (1992) is the parent framework treaty with no binding limits. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding targets for developed countries only. The Paris Agreement (2015) covers all countries, each with its own NDC.

What is India's net zero target?

India has announced that it will reach net zero emissions by 2070. It also pledged 500 GW of non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030. These were announced at COP26 in Glasgow in 2021.

What is an NDC?

A Nationally Determined Contribution is a country's own plan to cut emissions and adapt to climate change under the Paris Agreement. Countries submit and update it every five years, aiming for higher ambition each time.

What was the COP28 outcome?

COP28 in Dubai (2023) completed the first Global Stocktake of progress under the Paris Agreement. It called for transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems in a just, orderly and equitable way, and operationalised a loss and damage fund.