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Business and Technology · Motivating individuals and teams

Process Theories of Motivation: Vroom, Adams and Locke

Updated 11 October 2026 · Fact-checked

Process theories explain how people decide to put in effort, not just what motivates them. Vroom links effort to expected outcomes (expectancy, instrumentality, valence). Adams says people compare their input-to-reward ratio with others. Locke says specific, challenging goals that people accept lead to higher performance. In the exam, match the scenario to the theory.

Understand Process Theories of Motivation

Content theories (such as Maslow and Herzberg) ask: what needs drive people? Process theories ask: how do people decide whether to try, and how hard? They look at thinking and judgement, not just needs.

Vroom's expectancy theory says motivation depends on three beliefs. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to good performance. Instrumentality is the belief that good performance will lead to a reward. Valence is how much the person values that reward. Vroom's model is often written as a multiplication, so if any one element is zero, motivation is zero. A bonus nobody wants has zero valence. A bonus that is paid regardless of performance has no instrumentality.

Adams' equity theory says people compare the ratio of their inputs (effort, skill, hours, experience) to their outputs (pay, recognition, status) with the ratio of a comparison person. If the ratios feel equal, they feel fairly treated. If not, they feel tension and act to restore balance. They may cut effort, ask for more pay, change how they view the comparison, or leave. Note that overpayment can also create discomfort, though under-reward is the usual exam scenario.

Locke's goal-setting theory says goals motivate when they are specific and challenging but achievable, accepted by the person, and followed by feedback. Vague goals such as 'do your best' give weaker results. Participation in setting goals can help acceptance.

For managers, the lesson is practical. Make the link between effort and reward clear, offer rewards people value, treat staff fairly and openly, and set clear goals with feedback.

Key formulas to remember

Vroom's expectancy model
Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence
A multiplicative idea: if any one element is zero, motivation is zero. Use it as a memory aid, not a calculation.
Adams' equity comparison
Own outputs ÷ Own inputs compared with Other's outputs ÷ Other's inputs
Equity exists when the perceived ratios are equal. It is about perception, not actual fairness.
Locke's goal features
Specific + Challenging + Accepted + Feedback
Goals with these features tend to improve performance.

How to solve Process Theories of Motivation questions

Use this method for any question on process theories, whether it is a one-mark definition or a four-mark scenario.

  1. 1Decide if the question is about content (needs) or process (decision and comparison). Words like 'compares', 'expects', 'fair' and 'goal' point to process theories.
  2. 2Identify the theory: expectation of reward means Vroom, comparison with others means Adams, targets and feedback mean Locke.
  3. 3Read the scenario for the key clue, such as a missing link between performance and reward, or a colleague paid more.
  4. 4For Vroom, test each element: expectancy, instrumentality, valence. Find which one is weak or zero.
  5. 5For Adams, list the person's inputs and outputs, then the comparator's, and judge whether the ratios match.
  6. 6For Locke, check whether the goal is specific, challenging, accepted and followed by feedback.
  7. 7Select the option or write the answer that names the theory and the exact weak point.
  8. 8For multiple response questions, count the required number of answers and check each against the definition.

Quickest way: Clue-word matching

When to use it: Use in Section A objective questions when you have about a minute per question.

  1. Scan for the clue: 'will my effort pay off' is expectancy, 'will I get the reward' is instrumentality, 'do I want it' is valence.
  2. 'Colleague', 'compared' or 'unfair' means Adams' equity.
  3. 'Target', 'specific', 'feedback' or 'participation' means Locke.
  4. 'Needs' or 'hygiene factors' means content theory, so eliminate process options.
  5. Remove options that mix up the theory and its author, then choose.

Common mistakes in Process Theories of Motivation

  • Confusing expectancy with instrumentality.

    Both sound like 'expecting' something.

    Fix: Expectancy links effort to performance. Instrumentality links performance to reward.

  • Treating valence as the size of the reward.

    Students assume bigger rewards always motivate more.

    Fix: Valence is how much the individual values the reward. A large reward that the person does not want has low valence.

  • Saying equity means equal pay.

    The words sound alike.

    Fix: Equity means the ratio of outputs to inputs feels fair compared with someone else. Different pay can be equitable if inputs differ.

  • Classing Locke's theory as a content theory.

    Goals seem like a need.

    Fix: Locke explains how goals direct effort and persistence, so it is a process theory.

  • Forgetting that Adams' comparison is perceived, not factual.

    Students look for objective unfairness.

    Fix: Use the employee's perception. Feeling underpaid can reduce effort even if pay is market rate.

  • Mixing up theory names and authors.

    Several theories are studied together.

    Fix: Learn pairs: Vroom with expectancy, Adams with equity, Locke with goals, Maslow and Herzberg with content.

Worked examples

Example 1

A sales team is told a bonus is paid for hitting quarterly targets. Staff believe the targets are impossible whatever their effort, so they put in little. Which element of Vroom's theory is weak?
A Expectancy
B Instrumentality
C Valence
D Equity

Show the solution
  1. The theory is Vroom, so options are expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Equity belongs to Adams, so D is out.
  2. Staff believe targets cannot be reached whatever the effort. That is a weak belief that effort leads to performance.
  3. Instrumentality would be about performance leading to the bonus, and valence about wanting the bonus. Neither is the problem here.

Answer: A Expectancy

Example 2

Priya and Sam do the same job with similar experience. Priya works regular overtime. Sam does not, yet both get the same pay. Priya finds out and reduces her overtime. Explain this using a suitable process theory.

Show the solution
  1. Identify the theory: Priya compares herself with Sam, so it is Adams' equity theory.
  2. Inputs: Priya gives more effort through overtime. Outputs: same pay as Sam.
  3. Her ratio of outputs to inputs is lower than Sam's, so she perceives inequity and feels tension.
  4. She restores balance by reducing her input, the overtime. Other options include asking for more pay or changing the comparator.
  5. The manager should explain the pay basis, or recognise extra effort fairly.

Answer: Adams' equity theory: Priya perceives her output-to-input ratio as lower than Sam's, so she cuts her input by reducing overtime to restore balance.

Exam tips

  • Link the theory name to its author. Questions often give the author and ask for the theory, or the reverse.
  • In scenarios, quote the clue and name the theory element, such as 'weak instrumentality because pay is not linked to performance'.
  • For multiple response questions, select exactly the stated number of answers and check each one against a definition.
  • Separate content from process theories. Expect a question asking which theory is a process theory.
  • Remember Locke's four features: specific, challenging, accepted, with feedback.

Practice questions from Motivating individuals and teams

Process Theories of Motivation in other exams

The same ground in other exams, if you are preparing for more than one or want another angle on it.

Process Theories of Motivation: frequently asked questions

What is the difference between content and process theories of motivation?

Content theories identify what needs or factors motivate people, such as Maslow and Herzberg. Process theories explain how people decide to act, based on expectations, fairness and goals. Vroom, Adams and Locke are process theories.

What are valence, instrumentality and expectancy in Vroom's theory?

Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance leads to a reward. Valence is the value the person places on that reward.

Can Adams' equity theory apply to overpayment?

Yes. A person who feels overrewarded may also feel tension. In exam questions, though, the usual case is someone who feels underrewarded compared with a colleague.

What makes a goal motivating in Locke's theory?

The goal should be specific, challenging but achievable, accepted by the person, and supported by feedback. Involving staff in setting goals can help them accept it.